Thucydides’s History of the Peloponnesian War breaks off before the story is over. After detailing the armed conflict between the Athenians and the Spartans (and their respective allies) between 431 and 404 BCE, the eight-book text ends abruptly in the middle of a chapter as if, one day, the writer simply dropped his pen and left his desk, never to return. What required such urgent and final attention? And why did Thucydides never return to complete the manuscript? Whatever the answers, the book’s incompleteness adds a human touch to a work that is otherwise an accomplished and polished piece of writing. The Peloponnesian War that Thucydides recounts culminated in Sparta’s surprising late victory over Athens and ended a power dynamic that had shaped the ancient Aegean world for decades. Everything changed in its aftermath. Both major powers came out of the war considerably weakened, opening the door for the later annexation of Greece by Philip of Macedon, his son Alexander the Great, and, finally, the Romans. 

In Thucydides, the war found an author of meticulous standard and dedication who created a work that still resonates in the disciplines of history, international relations, and political philosophy. His thoroughness, sharpness, and matter-of-fact analysis have led some people to believe that he, and not his contemporary Herodotus, deserves the title ‘father of history’. Thucydides might have agreed, though he never used the word historian to describe himself. His history also includes several direct and indirect attacks on his immediate predecessors, most notably on Homer and Herodotus. While never once referring to him by name, Thucydides accused Herodotus of fabulation, storytelling, and a writing style that pandered to his immediate audience. Needless to say, Thucydides was convinced that he himself offered a far superior product, one that would surely (and has!) transcend his own time. As for being a relevant author, he set the bar and set it high:

The results, by avoiding Herodotus’ form of patriotic storytelling, will perhaps seem less enjoyable for those listening. Yet if they are judged useful by any who wish to look at the plain truth about both past events and those that at some future time, in accordance to human nature, will recur in similar or comparable ways, that will suffice

As a high-ranking Athenian military commander (or ‘strategos’), Thucydides brought to the projectfirsthand experience of the war, as well as an acute understanding of the complex power politics behindevents on the battlefield. His analysis of the immediate and underlying causes of the war and his insightinto the considerations and motivations of those fighting it remain one of the most brilliant pieces of political history to date. His sharp analysis of the kind of forces that stir popular sentiments and drive collective decision makingstill resonates in the modern world. It fulfils its author’s own ‘somewhat preposterous’ proclamation about the nature of his work:

It is a possession for all time (‘ktema eis aei’), not a competition piece to be heard for the moment, that has been composed

THUCYDIDES

Nonetheless, his programmatic prediction proved right. More than 2500 years later, Thucydides’ History still stands among the foundational texts in the classical canon due to its enduring analytical sharpness and the acuteness of his observations

MY WAR IS BIGGER THAN YOUR WAR

When Thucydides set out to compose his work, the writing of warfare was already a notable traditionlaunched with a bang by the legendary Homer about three centuries earlier. In his epic poem Iliad,Homer related the story of the Trojan War as an epic battle involving gods and humans alike. He wasfollowed 300 years later by Herodotus who gave an account of the Persian Wars, similarly rich in iconicbattles and larger-than-life personalities on both sides of the conflict.

With Thucydides, the writing of war took a new direction. Incontrast to the wars of Homer and Herodotus, the armedconflict that concerned Thucydides was fought primarily among Greeks. It also involved events that occurred within theauthor’s lifetime, which introduced a contemporary dimensionto the genre.Thucydides focused on offering a strong and authoritative account of the war, its causes, and behind the scenes negotiations. To this end, he largely left out the gods and religious explanations more generally, although there is still more religion in Thucydides than one may think. Instead, he offered a deep analysis of human factors and motiations. Although Thucydides was aware that all authors exaggerate the importance of their topic, hetill felt inclined to make a case for his:

And this war, even though men always consider the war on hand the most important whilethey are fighting but once they have ended it are more impressed by ancient ones, will never-theless stand out clearly as greater than the others for anyone who examines it from the factsthemselves.

THUCYDIDES

The reasons he gave were three-fold: the Peloponnesian War was fought between two cities at the heightof their power; these powers went into conflict prepared; and most of the Greek world (and beyond) was subsequently drawn into the fighting.The so-called ‘archaeology’ of his work, a succession of observations laid out in the beginning, setsout his method: eyewitness accounts; the critical evaluation of sources and informants; and, finally, hisown experience and insight. What stands out throughout is the sharpness with which Thucydides reports. In contrast to Herodotus, he no longer includes alternative viewpoints and traditions but offers a strong, singular explanation of events. Yet the authorial voice Thucydides created in the History should not belie the fact that he engaged in his very own forms of make-believe.

Through the speeches, in particular, Thucydides offers evaluations of events and situations in a voiceother than his own. Interspersed throughout the History, they provide a commentary on the events fromthe perspective of the historical actors.

A BATTLE OF WORDS

Some modern critics decry the speeches in Thucydides’ History as the failure of an otherwise truthfuland authoritative narrator. Yet Thucydides himself apparently saw no problem; there was no conflictbetween his aim to tell what really happened and his use of speeches, although he did find the subjectimportant enough to warrant an explanation:

Insofar as these facts involve what the various participants said both before and during theactual conflict, recalling the exact words was difficult for me regarding speeches I heard myself and for my informants about speeches made elsewhere; in the way I thought each would havesaid what was especially required in the given situation, I have stated accordingly, with theclosest possible fidelity on my part to the overall sense of what was actually said.

Among the speeches, the so-called ‘Funeral Oration’ stands out. Allegedly delivered by the famous Athenian statesman and orator Pericles after the first year of the Peloponnesian war, the speech was intended to celebrate those who had fallen, and offers an appraisal of Athenian culture, identity, andideology. Thucydides’ Pericles makes an emphatic appeal to the very foundations of Athens’ power and supremacy. His appraisal of Athenian greatness includes references to bravery, military strength,democracy, freedom, and the rule of law, as well as to ‘soft’ values such as the love of beauty, educationand the arts. However, a different picture of life in Athens follows this oration: Thucydides’ detailed account of theplague that broke out shortly afterwards. Thucydides, who was also afflicted, reports in detail on the plague’s impact on the human body, the city, and its people. Lawlessness, disregard for custom, egotismand a general lack of order in the face of death took hold of Athens.The strong contrast between the high-minded Funeral Oration and the ravages of the plague providesa powerful insight into the principles that guide Thucydidean enquiry. This author is not afraid to pointout that ideological premise and historical practice don’t always mesh. Time and again he shows that inextreme situations, it is human nature to diverge from ideals that are otherwise firmly held.In these moments, the anthropologist and humanist in Thucydides comes to the fore. Recent scholarshiphas highlighted this dimension of his work. Even though the main focus in his History remains onwarfare and the geo-political deliberations that inform it, there is more on human nature and culture in this work than one may think. And, more frequently than not, Thucydides extends his sharp analysisfrom politics and warfare to the human and cultural factors driving human history….

ENDURING SHARP POLITICAL REALISM

It is such resonances which make the History stand out and endure. The voice of the characters within the story reverberate with the voice of Thucydides as its author. Despite his penchant for long-winded sentences – truthfully and painstakingly rendered into English in most translations – Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War has become a classic by virtue of the sharp political realism at its core.It remains a must-read for all who want to understand how power politics manifest, and learn about its effect on the psychology of humankind, both individual and collective.

_{By Julia Kindt, all translations are from M. I. Finley and R. Warner’s translation of Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War (New York, 1972)}